During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity, sometimes called the renaissance of 12th century.
The intellectual problems discussed throughout this period were the relation of faith to reason, the existence and simplicity of God, the purpose of theology and metaphysics, and the issues of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle—more than 3, pages of his works would eventually be translated—and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism.
Scholars such as Peter Abelard d. The groundwork for the rebirth of learning was also laid by the process of political consolidation and centralization of the monarchies of Europe. This process of centralization began with Charlemagne, King of the Franks — and later Holy Roman Emperor — Otto was successful in unifying his kingdom and asserting his right to appoint bishops and archbishops throughout the kingdom.
From this close contact, many new reforms were introduced in the Saxon kingdom and in the Holy Roman Empire. Yet the renaissance of the 12th century was far more thoroughgoing than those renaissances that preceded in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Conquest of and contact with the Muslim world through the Crusades and the reconquest of Spain also yielded new texts and knowledge.
Most notably, contact with Muslims led to the the European rediscovery and translation of Aristotle, whose wide-ranging works influenced medieval philosophy, theology, science, and medicine.
The lateth and earlyth centuries also saw the rise of cathedral schools throughout Western Europe, signaling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns. Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities.
The first universities in Europe included the University of Bologna , the University of Paris c. In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium— the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic—and the quadrivium— arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.
Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism, an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas d.
The development of medieval universities allowed them to aid materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure, which was needed for scientific communities. Royal and noble courts saw the development of chivalry and the ethos of courtly love. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels.
Geoffrey of Monmouth d. Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardization of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around a monk named Gratian, a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the Decretum.
Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history were the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics.
Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno. The Weird Truth about Arabic Numerals : How the world came to use so-called Arabic numerals—from the scholarship of ancient Hindu mathematicians, to Muslim scientist Al-Khwarizmi, to the merchants of medieval Italy. The renaissance of the 12th century was a highly productive time of social, political, and economic transformations, and saw important artistic, technological, and scientific advancements.
Write about the scientific and artistic advancements of the High Middle Ages and how these advancements were influenced by certain technological advancements and changes in thinking. The renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes at the outset of the High Middle Ages.
It included social, political, and economic transformations, and an intellectual revitalization of Western Europe with strong philosophical and scientific roots. For some historians these changes paved the way for later achievements such as the literary and artistic movement of the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century and the scientific developments of the 17th century.
Apart from depopulation and other factors, most classical scientific treatises of classical antiquity, written in Greek, had become unavailable. Philosophical and scientific teaching of the Early Middle Ages was based upon the few Latin translations and commentaries on ancient Greek scientific and philosophical texts that remained in the Latin West. This scenario changed during the renaissance of the 12th century. The increased contact with Byzantium and with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, the Crusades, and the Reconquista allowed Europeans to seek and translate the works of Hellenic and Islamic philosophers and scientists, especially Aristotle.
The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle allowed the full development of the new Christian philosophy and the method of scholasticism. By there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Galen—that is, all the intellectually crucial ancient authors except Plato. Also, many of the medieval Arabic and Jewish key texts, such as the main works of Avicenna, Averroes, and Maimonides became available in Latin.
During the 13th century, scholastics expanded the natural philosophy of these texts by commentaries associated with teaching in the universities and independent treatises. Scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic.
Grosseteste was the founder of the famous Oxford Franciscan school. He concluded from particular observations into a universal law, and then back again—from universal laws to prediction of particulars. These ideas established a tradition that carried forward to Padua and Galileo Galilei in the 17th century. He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results—a cornerstone of the scientific method, and a continuation of the work of researchers like Al Battani.
The first half of the 14th century saw the scientific work of great thinkers. This principle is one of the main heuristics used by modern science to select between two or more underdetermined theories.
William of Ockham: William of Ockham, from stained glass window at a church in Surrey. He is considered one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the center of the major intellectual and political controversies of the 14th century.
Thomas Bradwardine and his partners, the Oxford Calculators of Merton College, Oxford, distinguished kinematics from dynamics, emphasizing kinematics, and investigating instantaneous velocity. They formulated the mean speed theorem: a body moving with constant velocity travels distance and time equal to an accelerated body whose velocity is half the final speed of the accelerated body.
In his turn, Nicole Oresme showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of Earth were not valid, and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that Earth moves, and not the heavens.
The historian of science Ronald Numbers notes that the modern scientific assumption of methodological naturalism can be also traced back to the work of these medieval thinkers. After the renaissance of the 12th century, medieval Europe saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth.
The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption of gunpowder, the invention of vertical windmills, spectacles, mechanical clocks, and greatly improved water mills, building techniques Gothic architecture, medieval castles , and agriculture in general three-field crop rotation. The development of water mills from their ancient origins was impressive, and extended from agriculture to sawmills both for timber and stone.
By the time of the Domesday Book, most large villages had turnable mills; there were around 6, in England alone. Water power was also widely used in mining for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering bellows. European technical advancements from the 12th to 14th centuries were either built on long-established techniques in medieval Europe, originating from Roman and Byzantine antecedents, or adapted from cross-cultural exchanges through trading networks with the Islamic world, China, and India.
Often, the revolutionary aspect lay not in the act of invention itself, but in its technological refinement and application to political and economic power. Though gunpowder and other weapons had been started by the Chinese, it was the Europeans who developed and perfected its military potential, precipitating European expansion and eventual imperialism in the Modern Era. Also significant in this respect were advances in maritime technology. Advances in shipbuilding included the multi-masted ships with lateen sails, the sternpost-mounted rudder, and the skeleton-first hull construction.
The technical drawings of late-medieval artist-engineers Guido da Vigevano and Villard de Honnecourt can be viewed as forerunners of later Renaissance works by people like Taccola or da Vinci.
European output of printed books c. A book is defined as printed matter containing more than 49 pages. A precursor to Renaissance art can be seen in the early 14th century works of Giotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of a three-dimensional reality, and to endow his characters with true human emotions. The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence.
The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici. There were several important technical innovations in visual arts, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models.
In northern European countries, Gothic architecture remained the norm, and the Gothic cathedral was further embellished. In Italy, on the other hand, architecture took a different direction, also inspired by classical ideals. In one structure, two of the most influential architectural designs in the world.
The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the vernacular languages. The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and in France since the 11th century. The most popular genres of written works had been the chanson de geste, troubadour lyrics, and romantic epics, or the romance.
Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and is considered the first modern lyric poetry collection.
Together these three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language. The Black Death was an infamous pandemic of bubonic plague and one of the most devastating pandemics in human history.
In the Late Middle Ages — Europe experienced the most deadly disease outbreak in history when the Black Death, the infamous pandemic of bubonic plague, hit in The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75— million people and peaking in Europe in the years — The Black Death is thought to have originated in the arid plains of Central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road, reaching the Crimea by It was most likely carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships.
Mongol dominance of Eurasian trade routes enabled safe passage through more secured trade routes. Goods were not the only thing being traded; disease also was passed between cultures. From Central Asia the Black Death was carried east and west along the Silk Road by Mongol armies and traders making use of the opportunities of free passage within the Mongol Empire offered by the Pax Mongolica.
In the autumn of , plague broke out among the besiegers and then penetrated into the town. When spring arrived, the Italian merchants fled on their ships, unknowingly carrying the Black Death.
The plague initially spread to humans near the Black Sea and then outwards to the rest of Europe as a result of people fleeing from one area to another. While Europe was devastated by the disease, the rest of the world fared much better.
In India, populations rose from 91 million in , to 97 million in , to million in Sub-Saharan Africa also remained largely unaffected by the plagues. The most infamous symptom of bubonic plague is an infection of the lymph glands, which become swollen and painful and are known as buboes. Leywrite - Fine paid by unchaste bondwoman, normally when discovered to be pregnant but unmarried.
Livery - To be given land as a gift from the king. Also meant to be given the right to wear a lord's livery. Man - In this sense to be a lord's man, to owe obligations to, in the forms of labor and service. A woman could be someone's man. Man-at-Arms - A soldier holding his land, generally acres, specifically in exchange for military service. Sometimes called a Yeoman. Manor - Estate held by a lord and farmed by tenants who owed him rents and services, and whose relations with him were governed by his manorial court.
The unit of territorial lordship, not necessarily coinciding witht eh village or hamlet, often but not invariably containing three elements: demesne, free tenures and customary tenures. Manumission - The act by which a lord free a serf. Marcher lord - Lord of a border district, such as the boundaries of Wales and Scotland.
Mark - A measure of silver, generally eight ounces, accepted throughout western Europe. In England it was worth thirteen shillings and four pence, two thirds of one pound. Marshal - Household official in charge of the stables, later a royal officer. Medale - A drinking festivity after the lord's meadows had been mowed. Medkniche - A haymaker's fee, viz.
Merchet - A fine paid by a servile tenant to his lord for liberty to give his daughter in marriage. Mesnie - Military personnel of a castle household. Messor - An official appointed to oversee the manorial reapers or mowers.
Messuage - A portion of land occupied as a site for the dwelling-house and its appurtenances. Mort Dancestor - A pleading in a royal court, concerning claims by an heir that another had usurped his rightful succession to a free tenement at the death of the parent.
Mortuary - A customary gift usually the second best animal paid to the parish priest from the estate of a deceased parishioner. Multure - Payment of a fraction of the grain ground to the lord of the mill, or the miller. Naifty - The state of being born in bondage or serfdom.
Nativi - Persons of servile birth. Same as Neif. Ordeal - A method of trial in which the accused was given a physical test usually painful and dangerous which could only be met successfully if he were innocent. Outfangenethef - The lord's right to pursue a thief outside his own jurisdiction, bring him back to his own court for trial, and keep his forfeited chattels on conviction. Palatinate - In England, a county in which the tenant-in-chief exercised powers normally reserved for the king, including the exclusive right to appoint justiciar, hold courts of chancery and exchequer, and to coin money.
The king's writ was not valid in a County Palatinte. Pannage - The payment made to the lord for the privilege of feeding beasts in the woods about the village. Pinfold - A place for confining stray or impounded cattle, horses, etc; a pound. Pittancer - An officer of a religious house who had the duty of distributing charitable gifts or allowances of food.
Pone - A writ, whereby an action could be removed from the county court into the royal court. Primogeniture - The right of the eldest son to inherit the estate or office of his father. Pytel - A small field or enclosure; a close. Provost - Feudal or royal magistrate. Quintain - Dummy with shield mounted on a post, used as a target in tilting. Rape - The Sussex equivalent of a Hundred. Rebeck - A musical instrument, having three strings, and played with a bow; an early form of the fiddle.
Reeve - Manorial overseer, usually a villager elected by tenants of the manor. Regalian - Royal. Relief - A fine paid by the heir of a vassal to the lord for the privilege of succeeding to an estate. Replevy - To return distrained goods to their owner by process of law. Sake and soke - A right of jurisdiction claimed by some manorial lords. Lords and vassals existed under the feudal system.
Today, a lord would be the equivalent of a landlord. Another important duty of a vassal was to attend to his feudal lord during court. Immediately afterward, the lord raised the vassal to his feet and kissed him on the mouth to symbolize their social equality. The vassal then recited a predetermined oath of fealty, and the lord conveyed a plot of land to the vassal.
In the seventeenth century, more than three centuries after the death of this particular social practice, English scholars began to use the term feudalism to describe it. The word was derived by English scholars from foedum , the Latin form of fief. The meaning of feudalism has expanded since the seventeenth century, and it now commonly describes servitude and hierarchical oppression. However, feudalism is best understood as an initial stage in a social progression leading to private ownership of land and the creation of different estates, or interests in land.
Before feudalism, the European population consisted only of wealthy nobility and poor peasants. Little incentive existed for personal loyalty to sovereign rulers. Land was owned outright by nobility, and those who held land for lords held it purely at the lords' will.
Nevertheless, the feudal framework was preceded by similar systems, so its exact origin is disputed by scholars. Ancient Romans, and Germanic tribes in the eighth century, gave land to warriors, but unlike land grants under feudalism, these were not hereditary. In the early ninth century, control of Europe was largely under the rule of one man, Emperor Charlemagne — After Charlemagne's death, his descendants warred over land ownership, and Europe fell apart into thousands of seigniories , or kingdoms run by a sovereign lord.
Men in the military service of lords began to press for support in the late ninth century, especially in France. Lords acquiesced, realizing the importance of a faithful military. Military men, or knights, began to receive land, along with peasants for farmwork. Eventually, knights demanded that their estates be hereditary.
Other persons in the professional service of royalty also began to demand and receive hereditary fiefs, and thus began the reign of feudalism.
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